This Week: Stefan Landsberger's
Chinese Propaganda Poster Pages

Propaganda posters may be the original "pop art"–mass-produced works meant to be seen by the public at large rather than just museum-goers. While such posters may be a dying art form in the west, the Chinese government still spreads its social messages via colorful posters. Stefan Landsberger, a 47-year-old lecturer in contemporary Chinese History at Leiden University in The Netherlands, may very well own the biggest collection of Chinese propaganda posters in the world. Fortunately, he's seen fit to post many of them online on his website, which probably has the most thoroughly researched captions of any online museum.

How are these posters created–through what process are they produced?

First, there's the "made to order" mechanism, which results in the production of propaganda in a "top-down" fashion. On the basis of indications from the Central Committee, the Propaganda Department formulates the broad ideological guidelines of a propaganda campaign to be set up. Examples are the calls to strengthen patriotism. The campaign was to propagate the new look of the PRC. The artists subsequently are informed of the objectives of the campaign through the various channels of communication at the disposal of the Department.

The second mechanism could work along the following lines and is what I would term the "selection" option, leading to the production of propaganda in a 'bottom-up' way. Artists are instructed to produce a quota of art each year, along the same general artistic guidelines mentioned before. They do this in return for their material upkeep, for which the academies and associations are responsible in name; in reality, artists are on the State's payroll. The artistic products thus created subsequently are selected by (a section of) the Department on the basis of their possible application in a propaganda campaign which already takes place, or which is about to be organized.

The third mechanism would combine elements from both the "top-down" and the "bottom-up" methods. This is the mechanism most likely to be employed. The Propaganda Department issues guidelines on a yearly, or more frequent, basis, which are in line with tentative plans formulated by the Central Committee. Artists produce a circumscribed amount of artworks on the basis of both the ideological and general artistic guidelines. Within each unit, these works are reviewed by its members, a process that is repeated at each successive higher level of bureaucratic organization. The Department, or a section, finally selects the artistic products that most appropriately visualize the campaign. Then, these are produced in sufficient amounts to saturate the country and to start the process of influencing the behavior of the recipients.

When did these posters first become widespread?

Posters with political contents of sorts were used from the late 19th century onwards.

What purpose do these posters serve?

Through 5,000 years of history, Chinese politics have made extensive use of the arts to propagate correct behavior and thought. Literature, poetry, painting, stage plays, songs and other artistic expressions were given one important function: they had to educate the people in what was considered right and wrong at any time. The general idea was that as long as the State provided examples of proper, or correct, behavior, this automatically would lead the people to believe what was considered proper to believe.

This practice did not stop once the People's Republic of China was established in 1949. On the contrary, propaganda art continued to be seen as one of the major means to illustrate the "correct" policies of the moment and the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) visions of the future, especially for those who could not read. And there were quite a few of those. During the huge political mass campaigns of the late 1950s and 1960s, in particular in the time of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, propaganda posters even came to dominate communications between the leadership and the people. In these years, the propaganda poster reached the peak of artistic expression, both in form and contents; the best available artists were employed to visualize the political trends of the moment in the most detailed way. And once the artists were finished, the posters were reproduced in as many copies as possible to create the maximum effect.

Through its complete control of both the artists and the publishing sector, the CCP was able to force its interpretation of reality and aesthetics on the population. As opposed to other images to decorate the home with, propaganda art was widely available and thus penetrated into the lowest form of social organization and cohabitation: the multi-colored posters could be seen adorning walls in houses and dormitories. Their composition and visual content appealed to the spectators, while their political message was passed on in an almost subconscious manner.

Where are they posted? How many are printed?

Original works of art were reproduced in journals and magazines; they were reprinted as large-format or small-format posters, and some were even turned into postage stamps. The large posters could be seen in the streets, in railway stations and other public spaces; the smaller ones were distributed through the network of the Xinhua (New China) bookshops for mass consumption. In the period 1966-1969, propaganda art became the most favored vehicle for the transmission of the often bewildering shifts in Party ideology and alliances. On lower levels of government in particular, posters could be and were produced on short notice to accommodate the changes in the interpretation of what was deemed correct, in line with the political developments at the local level in the course of the power struggle. Given the anarchy that reigned in many parts of China during the first phase of the Cultural Revolution, locally produced posters were often the only source of information available. People carefully studied such political posters for guidance, trying to detect any subtle change of tone or ideology, redirection of the (sub)movement(s), and (dis)appearance of slogans. They were accustomed to the use of verbal codes and symbols in the media, and the posters ideally provided a more concrete illustration of a situation that was increasingly hard to fathom.

Circulation numbers are hard to fathom; important posters can have print runs of several tens of millions of copies (Mao's official portrait, for example). Others are produced in relatively small numbers: 5 to 100 thousand.

How do you think the general Chinese populace regards these posters?
Are the messages influential, or ignored?

Have propaganda posters been effective in educating the Chinese people? Have they succeeded in bringing about correct behavior and thought? These crucial questions are difficult to answer, if only because–to my knowledge–no serious research has been done yet on the reception and/or effectiveness of the posters. In an attempt to shed some light on these questions, however, I present a few suggestions below, based on circumstantial evidence from various sources.

Most reports about the reception that posters published since the late 1940s have received stress the accepted line that people prefer the wholesome, modern, and educational contents of the posters, rather than other, more frivolous, or more traditional visual materials. In the early 1950s, in particular, this preference was expressed in reference to the New Year's pictures (nianhua) the people had access to in the past. These reports, whether from the early days of the PRC or from the mid-1980s, however, offer no assessment of the educational effects the posters may have had.

The numerous conversations I have had with Chinese from all walks of life over the past two decades present a picture that modifies the official interpretation of the effectiveness of posters. Many, if not most, of the people I consulted did not consider the posters to be art or even aesthetically pleasing. People would often remark that "nobody in China was interested in these things," but this is difficult to believe, for three reasons. First, abundant pictorial evidence exists of dwellings–both urban and rural–in which propaganda posters are prominently displayed. This evidence spans some five decades. Second, many posters I have seen bear a handwritten inscription clearly indicating that these posters have been presented to others to mark a special occasion. Third, many people have offhandedly admitted to me–in a somewhat embarrassed manner–that they have internalized some behavioral aspects of the propaganda posters, most specifically the message presented by model hero Lei Feng.

Many of the memoirs written by participants in, or observers of, the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) devote much attention to "big-character posters" (dazibao) and their effects on the movement. But these writings are all curiously silent about the "'artistic"' posters that were published in such abundance in that period. While acknowledging the contradictory elements of the preceding, we have to conclude that there is no clear evidence to demonstrate that propaganda posters have been either effective or ineffective in inculcating thought and behavior. It is very clear, however, that during the two decades of reform, the usefulness of the propaganda poster has diminished considerably.

How have these posters changed in style or intent as China itself has changed?

The decline in the relevance of propaganda art started in the early 1980s. Under Deng Xiaoping, the economic rehabilitation of China was taken up with a vengeance. In fact, economic development became one of the–if not the - most important legitimizing factors for continued CCP rule. In the new market society, alternative modes of creation emerged, replacing the once dominant artistic style of socialist realism. The open door policy that Hua Guofeng initiated in 1977 enabled Chinese artists and designers to reacquaint themselves with the various artistic trends and developments that had swept the world during the decades that China had been sealed off from the outside world. The introduction of advertising in the print and broadcast media, and the screening of many foreign television programs, inspired artists and designers to borrow or emulate design and representational techniques from the West as well as from Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Japan. As a result of the shift in both policy and artistic guidelines, the themes addressed in propaganda became less heroic and militant, and more impressionistic. Many of the slogans employed no longer called for mobilization but for economic reform, and they had a less strident and aggressive tone. Abstract images replaced realism and more subdued colors replaced the bold hues. Despite the numerous attempts to modernize both form and contents, propaganda art lost further popular appeal with the emergence of an increasingly autonomous, unregulated and independent art market. As a rich assortment of eye-catching and aesthetically pleasing and evocative images became widely available, the party's dull messages lost appeal.

How did you become personally interested in these posters?

Through a fascination with totalitarian art.

What is it about them that fascinates you?

They represent the future in the present, not only showing "life as it really is," but also "life as it ought to be," or the revolutionary development which takes place "in the spirit of Socialism." In short, it creates a type of 'faction,' a hybrid of 'fact' and 'fiction,' stressing the positive and papering over anything negative.

How have you gone about collecting them?

When I started, more than 25 years ago, it was quite simple, and cheap as well. When in China, I look for them in antiquarian stores, antique markets, etc. Persistent collecting has paid off: Many people in China who thought I was a little crazy have turned into valuable sources of posters and/or information.

See also http://www.iisg.nl/exhibitions/chairman/landsberger.html

Are there many collectors of these posters?

I think I have one of the largest private collections in the world (approximately 1,500 titles), spanning 1949-present.

Do the Chinese themselves collect them?

An increasing number of them do.

How did you find and meet with some of the individual artists?

Contacting publishing houses, the China Artists Association, introductions by friends, etc.

Any particular posters on your wish list?

Always: 1930s posters (not the advertising posters with nice girls, but the political stuff), WWII materials, Korean War posters, etc.

Why did you put your collection online?

I think they are great to look at. Moreover, they all tell some story, and as such can serve as an illustrated supplement to the dry fact and figures of history books. Makes modern Chinese history livelier, and can function as a teaching resource.

What kinds of reactions have you gotten?

"Are you a communist?" "Do you sell them?" "Where can I buy a Chairman Mao poster?" But most of them are very positive. The site has, by now, been included in many on-line teaching resources, and has been added to the history web resources page of the Chinese National Library in Beijing.

What would you like to do with your collection/website in the future?

Website: Continue to expand it. I have quite a few additions in mind.

Collection: Get more posters, and become the biggest collection in the world.

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